list of black generals in the military

In 1916 Elnora died of an embolism after the birth of their third child. In June 1970, Davis became a member of the President's Commission on Campus Unrest. His high standing in his class entitled Davis to choose which branch of service he would enter. Before becoming secretary, he worked to play a role in passing the 1964 Civil Rights Act. Wilberforce was a Christian school, and Davis was not religious. He also recommended that the men be assigned to units on the basis of need, without reference to color. WebThis is a complete list of four-star generals in the United States Army, past and present.The rank of general (or full general, or four-star general) is the highest rank normally achievable in the U.S. Army.It ranks above lieutenant general (three-star general) and below General of the Army (five-star general).. These men are known for their persistent bravery despite racism and prejudice. Other. Act of August 7, 1947 [Officer Personnel Act of 1947], Sections 504(b,d), General and Commander in Chief, Continental Army, Louisiana Seminary of Learning and Military Academy, North African Theater of Operations, U.S. Army, Supreme Commander, Allied Expeditionary Force, European Theater of Operations, U.S. Army, Military Governor, U.S. Deputy Commanding General for Reserve Affairs, Deputy Surgeon General for Mobilization, Readiness and Army Reserve Affairs, Commanding General, U.S. Army Medical Center of Excellence (MEDCoE) and, National Guard Assistant to the Director of the. Davis married his second wife, a Wilberforce teacher named Sadie Overton, in 1919 and was assigned a teaching post at Tuskegee Institute in Tuskegee, Alabama, the next year. Reserve Forces Policy Board. He therefore made the best of the opportunity, performing the assignment with conscientiousness and grace that earned him respect. The first 5-star general was George C. Marshall (1880-1959). He displayed great acts of bravery during the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 and throughout the second World War. Officials curtly informed Davis that blacks, no matter what their standing at West Point, were not eligible to become part of the flying elite. Gen. Paula C. Lodi Army, 117th Congress (2021-2022)", "Major General Tracy L. Smith, Commanding General, 807th Medical Command (Deployment Support)", "263rd Army Air and Missile Defense Command promotes Maj. Gen. Rice", "63rd Readiness Division changes command", "81st Readiness Division Welcomes New Commanding General", "New Commander Takes Charge of the 88th Readiness Division", "Commanding General, MG Richard E. Angle", "1st Theater Sustainment Command Change of Command Ceremony [Image 4 of 9]", "Major General Dianne M. Del Rosso (USAR)", "21st Theater Sustainment Commanding General Earns Second Star", "167th Theater Sustainment Command gets new Commander", "Major General Edward H. Merrigan Jr. (USAR)", "108th Training Command Welcomes New Commander", "Carlton Smith, Major General & Managing Director", "Major General John Andonie, new deputy director of the Army National Guard, promoted at New York National Guard headquarters", "35th Infantry Division Change of Command", "PN361 Brig. Contemporary Black Biography. Office of the Secretary of Defense (OSD) Major General. WebBenjamin O. Davis, Sr., in full Benjamin Oliver Davis, Sr., (born July 1, 1877, Washington, D.C., U.S.died November 26, 1970, North Chicago, Illinois), soldier who became the first black general in the U.S. Army. Director of Military Assistance, 19621965. Director of Military Assistance, 19591962. https://www.encyclopedia.com/education/news-wires-white-papers-and-books/davis-benjamin-o-jr-1912, Goldsworthy, Joan "Davis, Benjamin O. Jr. 1912 In addition to the MLA, Chicago, and APA styles, your school, university, publication, or institution may have its own requirements for citations. In Benjamin O. Davis, Jr., American: An Autobiography, Davis noted that his fathers last promotion, made on the eve of World War II, was motivated primarily by the hope of winning black votes in the 1940 election [although he] had richly deserved it for many years. According to Washington Post Book World contributor Joseph Glattharr, Daviss parents gave their son a simple set of values by which to live: Treat others as you wish them to treat you. (19281993) First African-American to achieve the rank of general in the Army. (19292017) First Hispanic to achieve the rank of general in the Army. Since then nearly 400 other african On October 25, 1940, Benjamin Daviss fellow cadetsencouraged by their superiorssubjected him to a variety of mental cruelties they called silencing. For four years, no one roomed with him, ate with him, acknowledged his presenceeven if he asked a direct questionor spoke to him, except to issue an order. The first charge he was given after his military duties were finished was the federal sky marshal program, which he was put in charge of to stop airline hijackings. Contemporary Black Biography. By 1965 he had reached the rank of Lieutenant General. Haig served as White House chief of staff while on active duty as a general from May to July 1973. ." Doris Miller was one of the first to be awarded the Navy Cross after WWII. Davis played a key role in the integration process and later went on to command the integrated 51st Fighter Wing in Korea and the 13th Air Force in Vietnam. [52] When March replaced Bliss as chief of staff, Bliss was continued in four-star rank by brevet as the U.S. military representative to the Supreme War Council. Combined Command and Control System and Crisis Management Procedures", House Subcommittee on Air and Land Forces, Senate Subcommittee on Air and Land Forces, Reorganization plan of United States Army, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_United_States_Army_four-star_generals&oldid=1142423326, Short description is different from Wikidata, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, (18851945) Died in office. Air and Space Power Journal, Spring, 2003, p. 16. The presence of blacks was resented, and almost all the cadets ignored Davis. He found his work at Tuskegee pleasant, and he enjoyed the promotion to lieutenant colonel that came through while he was there. Generals entered the Army via several paths: 161 were commissioned via the U.S. Military Academy (USMA), 53 via Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC) at a civilian university, 16 via direct commission (direct), 13 via Officer Candidate School (OCS), 8 via ROTC at a senior military college, one via ROTC at a military junior college, one via direct commission in the Army National Guard (ARNG), one via the aviation cadet program, and one via battlefield commission. ." ." Brigadier General. Of these, 241 achieved that rank while on active duty in the U.S. Army; eight were promoted after retirement; five were promoted posthumously; and one (George Washington) was appointed to that rank in the Continental Army, the U.S. Army's predecessor. Seven years later, in 1937, Davis was finally appointed commander of the 369th Cavalry New York National Guard, fulfilling the black communitys wish to have its regiment commanded by black officers. Deputy Commanding General for Civil and Emergency Operations. Among the problems he had to face in his new assignment were segregated base facilities, poor morale, and continued evidence of the detrimental impact of segregation. Singer, dancer, actor Not the 99th. In April 1943 the unit was transferred to North Africa, and in June it flew its first combat mission. As recounted by Jet, Davis issued a statement saying that his military career was not a Black History Month feature and that his accomplishments were but a footnote in American history to the hundreds of Black airmen who stood shoulder to shoulder with their White counterparts. In Daviss autobiographywhich Glattharr called in Washington Post Book World must reading for anyone interested in race relations or American military historyDavis further detailed his belief that focusing on color divisions only served to perpetuate them. Recently my uncle sent me an article by Michael Peck from back in June titled, The 5 Greatest U.S. ." In 1944 Davis was sent to the European war zone to help calm the rising tension of black soldiers, who objected to the obvious hypocrisy of the U.S. government in battling Hitlers racism toward Jews in Nazi Germany while condoning discrimination in its own fighting forces. . List of active duty United States Army major generals, Retaining current position/position unannounced, Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Policy, Under Secretary of Defense for Intelligence, Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition and Sustainment, List of current United States National Guard major generals, Combined Joint Task ForceSpace Operations, Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe, Combined Joint Task Force Horn of Africa, Combined Joint Task Force Operation Inherent Resolve, Assistant Secretary of the Army (Acquisition, Logistics, and Technology), Program Executive Officer, Command, Control and Communications (Tactical), Program Executive Officer, Ground Combat Systems, Assistant Secretary of the Army (Financial Management and Comptroller), Assistant Secretary of the Army (Manpower and Reserve Affairs), Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Army, Manpower Policy and Quality of Life, Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel (G-1), Deputy Chief of Staff for Command, Control, Communications, Cyber Operations and Networks (G-6), U.S. Army Civil Affairs and Psychological Operations Command (Airborne), U.S. Army Communications-Electronics Command, U.S. Army Installation Management Command, U.S. Army Tank-automotive and Armaments Command, U.S. Army Sustainment Center of Excellence, U.S. Army Center for Initial Military Training, U.S. Army Intelligence Center of Excellence, U.S. Army Network Enterprise Technology Command, Military Surface Deployment and Distribution Command, Chief of Chaplains of the United States Army, United States Army Provost Marshal General, U.S. Army Intelligence and Security Command, Deputy Judge Advocate General of the United States Army, Judge Advocate General's Corps, U.S. Army, Surgeon General of the United States Army, U.S. Army Military District of Washington, Joint Force Headquarters-National Capital Region, 2nd Infantry Division-ROK/U.S. "I claim that trained writers are just as important to this war astrained fighters. . Gen. Michael E. Langley, 60, became the first Black Marine to receive a fourth star on his shoulder a landmark achievement in the corps 246-year history. Father of Army four-star generals. Soldiers' Angels provides support to our wounded, ill and injured service members through two unique programs. 9. Learn about our Privacy Policy. According to veteran pilot and Smithsonian contributor Edward Park, the squadron was given inferior equipment and sketchy training. With the squadron formed and Davis in command, the black Tuskegee pilots arrived at a dirt airstrip in North Africa and simply started flying missions. [The] attitude was: let em sink or swim. Davis told Park, Fortunately, before our unit was deployed, three old pilots gave us a hand. They showed us some of the tricks and how to survive. Park concluded: Ben Davis had two wars to fightone against Hitlers Luftwaffe, the other against the prejudice of the U.S. Army Air Forces.. Born Benjamin Oliver Davis in 1877 in Washington, DC; died of complications of leukemia, November 26, 1970; son of Louis (a messenger in government offices) and Henrietta (a nurse; maiden name, Stewart) Davis; married Elnora Dickerson, 1902 (died, 1916); married Sadie Overton, 1919 (died, 1966); children: Olive; Benjamin Oliver, Jr.; Elnora. At the same time, the level of responsibility in his new assignment was not commensurate with Daviss new rank, and he and his family were offended by the rampant racism they encountered in the South. Through a wide range of programs and services, Soldiers' Angels provides support throughout the military experience. Davis discovered an opportunity to benefit both troops and administrators when army sources informed him that only 79,000 black soldiers were fighting in the 504,000-strong overseas units, despite an alarming shortage of soldiers. Encyclopedia.com. Just as they had for his father, election-year politics finally gave Davis the break he deserved. Retired as major general, January 31, 1945; recalled February 1, 1945; promoted to general, March 5, 1945; advanced to general on the retired list, July 12, 1946; retired, July 20, 1946. 2895 NE Loop 410, Suite 107 Commanding General, Contingency Command Post 1 and Task Force 51. Upon returning to the United States he learned that in 1920 alone more than 70 black soldiers returning from European battle zones had been lynched by the recently revived Ku Klux Klan and others. His next tour of duty took him to Fort Washakie in Wyoming. [49] Washington was finally promoted to General of the Armies in 1976. After a transfer to Fort Riley, Kansas, the couple found themselves in slightly better circumstances; but they were still barred from the officers club and had to attend a segregated movie theater on the base. . Worse news was that these much-needed troops were serving in support roles, rather than in desperately needed combat positions. [58] Other joint four-star positions have included unified combatant commanders; certain NATO staff positions; and the wartime theater commanders in Vietnam (MACV), Iraq (MNF-I), and Afghanistan (ISAF/RS). With the squadron formed and Davis in command, the black Tuskegee pilots arrived at a dirt airstrip in North Africa and simply started flying missions. Encyclopedia of African-American Culture and History, Strength for the Fight: A History of Black Americans in the Military, The Oxford Companion to American Military History, Davis, Benjamin O., Sr. (18801970), first black general.Born the son of a U.S. government worker in Washington, D.C., Davis attended Howard Universi, Jefferson Davis Contemporary Black Biography. Reverted to major general upon expiration of wartime legislation, June 30, 1920; advanced to general on the retired list, June 21, 1930, as highest grade held during World War I. But Daviss father had his own notion of how to properly deal with the Klan; donning his white dress uniform, he seated his entire family under a bright porch light and stood defiantly as the Klansmenhooded and carrying flaming torchespassed within inches of him. On this Wikipedia the language links are at the top of the page across from the article title. Contemporary Black Biography. Warm Feet for Warriors is back! Chairman, Department of Defense Management Committee, 19491952. Officers appointed to such positions bear temporary four-star rank while so serving, and are allowed to retire at that rank if their performance is judged satisfactory. [The] attitude was: let em sink or swim. Davis told Park, Fortunately, before our unit was deployed, three old pilots gave us a hand. What's new with Soldiers' Angels? Pershing. Ready to get started? At The Officer Levels, This. In 1978 he became a member of the Battle Monuments Commission, a position his father had held twenty-five years earlier. Retired from active service as general of the Army, 1948; recalled as general of the Army, December 1950; resigned, 1952, to run for President; reappointed general of the Army, March 1961. The Buffalo Soldiers were a group of all African-American soldiers who served on the Western frontier following the Civil War. Black people make up 22.7% of enlisted soldiers, 16.5% of warrant officers and 11% of officers on active duty as of july. There, rising to the duties of post quartermaster, he earned reports describing him as efficient and zealous; at the same time, he and his new wife Elnora tasted the bitter social isolation of being the only black couple on the base. During the last year of the war, Davis was promoted to the rank of colonel, flew sixty combat missions (mainly escorting bombers) and received several awards, including the Distinguished Flying Cross. This title is not to be confused with the later five-star rank of General of the Army. General Davis traveled around the United States guiding the troops, improving morale among black soldiers, settling disturbances, and learning all he could to improve race relations. Stephen J. Townsend 2 Mar 2018. Davis died of complications from Alzheimer's disease on July 4, 2002. He also created films, brochures, and other educational tools on race relations for military and civilian use. Georgy Zhukov Zhukov has only one more battle than Alexander and his overall score barely squeaks by the Macedonian. Retirement did not mean idleness for the general. Still, white air corps officers sent an unfavorable report back to the Pentagon stating that the Negro type has not the proper reflexes to make a first-class fighter pilot. Herbert Mitgang pointed out in the New York Times that this language matched the theories of racial inferiority espoused by the Klan and by Hitler. Davis, fearing that the 99th would be assigned to routine coastal patrols, went to Washington to personally defend his squadrons right to remain in combat. New York Times, October 14, 1942; July 15, 1948; July 21, 1948. Encyclopedia.com. (February 23, 2023). Executive order 9981, july 26, 1948. In 1948 the United States Military became one of the first American institutions to adopt a policy of complete integrationin part because of the stellar performance of Davis and his men. Officer in Charge, TF-23, U.S. Vietnam Veteran Commemoration. As quoted by Richard M. Dalfiume in his book Desegregation of the U.S. Armed Forces, the order stated: There shall be equality of treatment and opportunity for all persons in the armed services without regard to race, color, religion or national origin.. Soldiers' Angels is ready to help you through your deployment with morale-boosting support and much-needed supplies. Father-in-law of Army four-star general, (18971978) Special Representative of the President in, (18961987) U.S. Special Representative to, (18921992) Special Representative of the President in the. (February 23, 2023). In its place came an ugly form of discrimination that stemmed from white reluctance to share power and was fostered by the forced illiteracy of blacks that had been a major weapon of oppression. Retired as general, November 2000; recalled as general, August 2003. Soldiers' Angels is committed to being financially transparent and fiscally responsible. Ready to help? Gen. Ronald R. Ragin Army, 118th Congress (2023-2024)", "PN202 Brig. Subsequently he was assigned to the new Air War College. Maj. Gen. Anderson made history in 2011, becoming the Army's first African-American woman to earn the rank of major general. In 1965 he was promoted to lieutenant general, the first African American to reach that rank. ." Officials curtly informed Davis that blacks, no matter what their standing at West Point, were not eligible to become part of the flying elite. Born Benjamin Oliver Davis, Jr., December 18, 1912, in Washington, D.C.; son of Benjamin Oliver (an officer in the U.S. Army) and Sadie (Overton) Davis; married Agatha Scott, June 20, 1936. https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/davis-benjamin-o-jr-0, John Whiteclay Chambers II "Davis, Benjamin O., Jr. Benjamin O. Davis was the first black general in the U.S. Army and a major force in the desegregation of the American armed services. Other designated four-star Army commands have included the various training, readiness, and materiel organizations. Deputy Commanding General for Military and International Operations. When he returned to the war zone, it was to command four black squadrons known as the 332nd Fighter Group. [56] The total number of active-duty four-star generals in the Army is limited to a fixed percentage of the number of Army general officers serving at all ranks.[57]. List Of African American Generals In The Us Military References. Corporate sponsors and their employees give back to veterans by hosting events at VA's across the country through Soldiers' Angels Home of the Brave. Davis was the first Two years later he succeeded in persuading Chief of Staff George Marshall to convert this regiment from service roles to anti-aircraft units, thus demonstrating that black soldiers were equal to any military task. He was promoted to Major General", "John Rueger promoted to lead infantry division", "Two-star general with O.C. All rights reserved. At the same time, he helped defeat segregationist policies in his own country by proving beyond a shadow of a doubt that black soldiers were in every way as competent as their white counterparts, and deserving of equal standing. Black residents were advised to stay indoors with their lights out during the demonstration, in order to avoid any eruption of violence. Encyclopedia.com. Washington Post Book World, March 17, 1991. Died in car crash, December 23, 1950; posthumously promoted to general, January 2, 1951. (February 23, 2023). Spiller, Roger J., editor, Dictionary of American Military Biography, Greenwood Press, 1984. Relieved, July 2005, and retired as lieutenant general. Chairman, Joint Logistics Review Board, 19691970. Gen. Laurence S. Linton Army, 118th Congress (2023-2024)", "PN203 Army, 118th Congress (2023-2024)", Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_active_duty_United_States_Army_major_generals&oldid=1142753610, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0. Retired as general, August 1963; recalled as general, September 1963. The rank of general (or full general, or four-star general) is the highest rank normally achievable in the U.S. Army. It ranks above major general ( two-star general) and below general ( four-star general ). Sammy Davis, Jr.s death in 1990 robbed American audiences of a favorite entertainer, a star, Davis, Angela 1944 Benjamin Oliver Davis Jr., son of the first African-American general in the U.S. Army, had a long and distinguished career of his own in the U.S. Air Force. In May 2020, there were 19 Black one-star generals in the Army, 15 two-stars, eight three-stars and one four-star, according to Defense Department data. Director, Office of the Joint Surgeon General, Commander, Cyber National Mission Force (CNMF), Deputy Chief of Staff for Strategy, Plans and Policy, Headquarters, Director, Army Recruiting and Retention Task Force. The rank of lieutenant general (or three-star general) is the second-highest rank normally achievable Early in life he wanted to be a cavalry Following his long military service, he spent a number of years working as an important administrator in the Department of Transportation. Free shipping for many products! His interest in flying never waned, and in 1941 he received his opportunity. President Harry S Truman presented Davis with a leather-bound scroll in honor of his service to the country and efforts on behalf of desegregation and equal opportunity in the militaryTruman noted that as of 1948 there were more than 1,000 African American officers in the army, in contrast to the mere five that had been present during Daviss first year of service. He was unhappy with his new position for a variety of reasons. CFC# 25131. Soldiers' Angels has teams of Angels who provide support to military families. Your privacy matters. U.S. Army's First Black Four-Star General Gen. Roscoe Robinson Jr.: Before Gen. Colin Powell, there was Robinson, who became the first African-American four-star Fletcher, Marvin E., Americas First Black General: Benjamin O. Davis, Sr., 1880-1970, University Press of Kansas, 1989. Get your company involved in giving back to the military and veteran community! Friction developed between Davis and the school authorities and remained throughout the four years he spent there. To give American commanders parity of rank with their Allied counterparts, Congress allowed the President to appoint two emergency generals in the National Army, specified to be the chief of staff of the Army (CSA), Tasker H. Bliss and later Peyton C. March; and the commander of United States forces in France, John J. Angela Yvonne Davis, political activist, author, professor, and Communist party member, was an internationa, Richard Harding Davis The Air Forces attitude toward the 99th paralleled West Points treatment of Davis: officially they were accepted, but off the record, they were encouraged to fail. Davis died of leukemia in 1970 at the age of 93. ^ "Major General John B. Hashem, USAR - Board Member". U.S. Army Commanding Generals. Politics: Democrat. U.S. Army General Officers. Brigadier General William L Sheep.jpg 2,234 2,931; 606 KB. Matthew P. Easley [4] U.S. Army. Due at least in part to the wartime accomplishments of Davis and his men, in 1948 the U.S. Armed Forces became one of the first institutions in America to adopt an official policy of full integration, thus becoming the first workplace in which black Americans could hope for equal opportunity. Deputy Commanding General for Acquisition and Systems. The 332nd saw action throughout Europe; in two days during January of 1944, they shot down 12 German fighters over the Anzio beachhead in Italy. The only time he had any companionship was when he was allowed to leave West Point. Captivated by soldiers tales of the Civil War, he became an enthusiastic cadet in high school and later helped form a company of volunteers to participate in the Spanish-American War. Soldiers' Angels relies on the generosity of these amazing individuals, corporations, and foundations. Soldiers' Angels volunteers work within VA Hospitals across the country to provide comfort and resources to veteran patients. Creator of educational films and brochures on race relations. Retrieved February 23, 2023 from Encyclopedia.com: https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/davis-benjamin-o-jr. Bernard C. Nalty , Strength for the Fight: A History of Black Americans in the Military, 1986. Brigadier General, United States Army, 1886, from the Military Series (N224) issued by Kinney Tobacco Company to promote Sweet Caporal Cigarettes MET DPB872410.jpg 465 873; 185 KB. Retired as general, August 1939; recalled as major general, September 1941. This is a complete list of four-star generals in the United States Army, past and present. As with the National Army emergency generals, these appointments expired after the end of the war, although postwar legislation allowed officers to retire in their highest active-duty rank. Encyclopedia of African-American Culture and History. . Director for Operations and Cyber (J-3/6). Flying had been a lifelong dream, and accordingly, he selected the Air Force. Davis stood firm against their mute, solid front and graduated 35th in a class of 276, becoming the first black in the twentieth century to complete four years at West Point. At the end of the fiscal year of 2023, it is estimated that there will be 16 Generals serving the United States Army. Graduated from Pennsylvania Military College, which was reorganized as a civilian institution in 1972 and is now. Davis suggested to General Eisenhower that these troops be allowed to volunteer for the previously all-white combat replacement program. ." John Whiteclay Chambers II "Davis, Benjamin O., Jr. And work hard at everything you do., Memories of his fathers courage undoubtedly helped Benjamin Davis, Jr., endure the trials he faced upon entering the United States Military Academy at West Point in 1932. Know what you need? . An unofficially segregated school system developed, causing resentment in the black population. Only four men, William D. Leahy, Ernest J. King, Chester W. Nimitz, and William F. Halsey, Jr. have been named Fleet Admiral. Listed below are African American men and women who have attained the rank of Admiral in the Navy or General in the Army or Air Force. He helped draft desegregation plans and put them into practice at Lockbourne Air Base. Instead, the young lieutenant was assigned to Fort Benning, Georgia. Encyclopedia.com. Temporary lieutenant, volunteer cadets, Spanish-American War, 1898-99; private, Ninth Cavalry, Regular Army, Samar, Philippines, 1899-1901; second lieutenant, Tenth Cavalry, Philippines and Fort Washakie, Wyoming, 1901-05; became first lieutenant, 1905; Wilberforce University, Ohio, teacher of military science, 1905-09; military attach, Monrovia, Liberia, 1909-11; tour of duty along Mexican border with Arizona, 1912-15; became captain and returned to Wilberforce University, 1915-17; became major, stationed in the Philippines, 1917-20; taught at Tuskegee Institute, Alabama, 1920-24, and became lieutenant colonel; instructor, Second Battalion, 372nd Regiment, Ohio National Guard, 1924-29; became colonel and escorted black Gold Star Mothers to Europe, 1929-30; returned to Tuskegee Institute, 1930-37; commanding officer, 369th Cavalry (Harlem Regiment) New York National Guard, 1937-40; promoted to brigadier general, 1940; assistant to inspector general, Washington, DC, 1940-41; commander, Fourth Cavalry Brigade, 1941; first retirement, 1941; inspector to black brigades and public relations, 1941-48; temporary ambassador to Liberia, 1947; second retirement, 1948.

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