Agent Orange was one of several herbicides used in Vietnam, the others including Agents White, Purple, Blue, Pink, and Green. All Rights Reserved. Second, finding better technology to eradicate all dioxin residues in Agent Orange hotspots in the past - Bien Hoa, Da Nang, Phu Cat airbases. It is estimated that, in total, tens of thousands of people have suffered serious birth defects spina bifida, cerebral palsy, physical and intellectual disabilities and missing or deformed limbs. But, in 2005 the judge dismissed the lawsuit ruling there was no legal basis for the plaintiffs claims. Frank Coleman is a Vietnam veteran dying from cancer brought on by exposure to the defoliant chemical Agent Orange which he turns to Maude DeVictor, a Veterans Administration benefits counselor who teams up with Coleman to fight a lopsided batted against the bureaucratic system f. Read all Director Lamont Johnson Writers Stephen Doran (story) Check out the ideal itinerary in Ho Chi Minh City that offers great insights into Vietnam culture and history. All were defoliants aimed at disrupting the jungle canopies, rice crops and other food sources for the Viet Cong. The chemicals were sprayed from aircraft contaminating soil, water, air. Now, for the first time, a recently uncovered U.S. army report reveals that, during the. What are symptoms of being exposed to Agent Orange? {{ post.roar_specific_data.api_data.analytics }}. And a large part of that devastation comes from a type of defoliant called Agent Orange. This is the chemical make up of 2-butoxyethanol and in this article I will refer to it as 2-B. -About 80 million litres of toxic chemicals were sprayed over the south of Vietnam. In the first generation, the impacts were mostly visible in high rates of various forms of cancer among both U.S. soldiers and Vietnam residents. Erosion caused by loss of tree cover and loss of seedling forest stock meant that reforestation was difficult (or impossible) in many areas. Areas of Laos and Cambodia near the Vietnam border were also impacted.. Dioxin later revealed to cause serious health issues among returning U.S. servicemen and their families as well as at a larger scale among the Vietnamese population. The disclosure led to immediate claims that New Zealand was in breach of the Geneva Convention and could face a flood of lawsuits from veterans and Vietnamese. "Food is a weapon", said Kissinger. Finally, soldiering on the fight for justice for the dioxin victims, with efforts to win more advocacy from the international public. That is insulting to the credibility and integrity of the men and women who served honorably, giving up years of our young lives to protect our great country of the United States of America and the island of Okinawa, says Sipalas letter. Nurses caring for two children in dioxin victims care centers in Vietnam. On August 10, 2023 - Agent Orange Awareness Day - we will bring light to the continuing dark toll of the war. The People vs. Agent Orange, mixture of herbicides that U.S. military forces sprayed in Vietnam from 1962 to 1971 during the Vietnam War for the dual purpose of defoliating forest areas that might conceal Viet Cong and North Vietnamese forces and destroying crops that might feed the enemy. Meanwhile, the children of veterans and Vietnamese people exposed to the chemicals were born with serious birth defects and illnesses. Exposure of Ground Troops But since then, thousands of Vietnam veterans have fought illnesses related . Above all, it has succeeded in raising over US$ 50 million and establishing over 26 care centers for victims and their families. A Government Minister says that New Zealand supplied Agent Orange chemicals to the United States military during the Vietnam War. Make a one-time contribution to Alternet All Access, Forget Jeb DeSantis. The Dioxin is the deadly toxin in Agent Orange and the responsible for countless health damages. However, there is one weapon the Pentagon has always denied that it kept on Okinawa: Agent Orange. Many U.S., Australian, and New Zealand servicemen who suffered long exposure to Agent Orange in Vietnam later developed a number of cancers and other health disorders. However, the dioxin (the main component) continues to have harmful impact (both humans and ecosystems) today and no compensation of the US government to Vietnamese victims has taken place. This dissertation addresses the long-term effects of improper handling and management of the herbicides during Operation Ranch Hand which caused excessive levels of dioxin contamination in Da Nang and surrounding areas. Add one more primary color to the poisonous palette of Vietnam: Agent Blue. This Vietnam travel information page is written by a team of professional tour guides in Vietnam. According to these accounts, hundreds of barrels of Agent Orange were shipped to Panama at the height of the Vietnam War, then sprayed on jungle areas to simulate the battlefield conditions. We have a strong desire to do the right thing for all of the U.S. veterans who were exposed to herbicides/Dioxin on Okinawa as well as for Okinawa, states the letter, which was organized by former Air Force sergeant Joe Sipala. Hundreds of thousands of American veterans of the Vietnam War have died, or are still suffering because of exposure to dioxin, the deadly toxin in Agent Orange. This dispersion of Agent Orange over a vast area of central and south Vietnam poisoned the soil, river systems, lakes and rice paddies of Vietnam, enabling toxic chemicals to enter the food chain. In 1969, when he was the National Security Advisor, the Cambodian government filed a claim for over $12 million in damages caused by night-time spraying of Agent Orange in Kompong Cham Province. Dioxin (Agent Orange) on the Carriers. The mixture was known as 'Agent Orange' because of the orange stripe on the 55-gallon drums in which it was transported to Vietnam. Orange Agent Tees Co. Orange Agent Vietnam War Military Victims Retired Soldier T-Shirt 25 $2432 FREE delivery Tue, Feb 7 on $25 of items shipped by Amazon Or fastest delivery Mon, Feb 6 Amazon Merch on Demand +3 CafePress Agent Orange T Shirt Graphic Shirt 5 $1999 $4.99 delivery Feb 9 - 14 Or fastest delivery Feb 8 - 10 Small Business Over the past decade, Vietnam and the U.S. governments have discussed and put into practice with remarkable success several short-term, and long-term operation plans to address the legacy of dioxin in Vietnam. The Burns and Novick documentary could have finally raised this uncomfortable truth, but, alas, the directors missed their chance. While a small amount of dioxin can actually reduce the risk of cancer contraction, a greater level than permitted would do exactly the reverse, increasing the risk of cancer substantially. These aircraft were subsequently returned to the U.S. and were used by Air Force reserve units between 1971 and 1982 for transport operations. US soldiers in the barren landscape of Phu Loc, South Vietnam. University of Newcastle provides funding as a member of The Conversation AU. The natural habitat of such rare species as tigers, elephants, bears and leopards were distorted, in many cases beyond repair. Erin Blakemore is an award-winning journalist who lives and works in Boulder, Colorado. ), Integrative Therapy & Healing Practices (Ph.D.), Jungian & Archetypal Studies (M.A./Ph.D. This dispersion of Agent Orange over a vast area of central and south Vietnam poisoned the soil, river systems, lakes and rice paddies of Vietnam, enabling toxic chemicals to enter the food. According with the Aspen Institute "The half-life of dioxin depends on its location. From 1971-1982, Air Force reservists, who flew in 34 dioxin-contaminated aircraft used to spray Agent Orange and returned to the U.S. following discontinuation of the herbicide spraying operations in the Vietnam War, were exposed to greater levels of dioxin than previously acknowledged, according to a study published today in Environmental Research by senior author Jeanne Mager Stellman, PhD, Mailman School of Public Health professor emerita in the Department of Health Policy and Management. Our editors will review what youve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. The U.S. and Vietnam are also undertaking a joint remediation program to deal with dioxin-contaminated soil and water. While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. Some 45 million liters of the poisoned spray was Agent Orange, which contains the toxic compound dioxin. It launched a public relations campaign included educational programs showing civilians happily applying herbicides to their skin and passing through defoliated areas without concern. In Quang Ngai province (in the southern half of the central coast), for example, 85% of the croplands were demolished in 1970 alone. It took years for the United States military to acknowledge that the chemicals were, in fact, harmful and even longer for them to begin compensating victims for their effects. In general, the once affluent rainforest and mangrove ecosystem of Vietnam have been superseded to a large extent by a much poorer one, and eco-balance is markedly less robust since the re-formation of young forest were disrupted by the birth and the growing ubiquity of rats. Out of the 28 bases where Ranch Hand stored defoliants and loaded them onto airplanes, the main ones were Bien Hoa Air Base for operations in Mekong Delta (Bien Hoa, a populous city in southern Vietnam) and Da Nang Air Base for central coast and the Ho Chi Minh Trail regions (an important artery for Vietnamese military in the war). And while research in those areas is limited an extensive 2003 study was canceled in 2005 due to a reported lack of mutual understanding between the U.S. and the Vietnamese governments evidence suggests that the heavily polluted soil and water in these locations have yet to recover. This article was most recently revised and updated by, 9 Questions About the Vietnam War Answered, https://www.britannica.com/science/Agent-Orange, National Center for Biotechnology Information - PubMed Central - Agent Orange During the Vietnam War: The Lingering Issue of Its Civilian and Military Health Impact. The illnesses should not come as a surprise. Not true: Sixty-five percent of the United States rainbow of chemicals contained dioxinsknown carcinogens. I'm a Disabled American Veterans Chapter Service Officer assisting a former Merchant Marine Seaman that was on several tours to Vietnam duding the war, his ships entered the inland waters and unloaded supplies and munitions in the . By estimation, Ranch Hand sprayed roughly 20 million gallons (75.7 million liters) of Rainbow herbicides, containing nearly 400 kilograms of dioxin on Vietnam. Mangrove forests before and after spraying. The destruction of Vietnamese forests, however, has proven irreversible. More than 10 years of U.S. chemical warfare in Vietnam exposed an estimated 2.1 to 4.8 million Vietnamese people to Agent Orange. South Vietnam was the main suffering region. The estimated airborne contamination exceeded the only available (German) standard.Dr. About 3 million Americans served in the armed forces in Vietnam and nearby areas. Agent Orange is an herbicide that was used by the United States in Vietnam, Cambodia, and parts of Korea. i Tour Vietnam | Top-rated private Ho Chi Minh City tours and Vietnam travel guides. James R. Clary was a young Air Force officer and scientist who designed the spray tank for the C-123 cargo planes that dispensed Agent Orange and other herbicides during the Vietnam War. Even Ken Burns and Lynn Novick seem to gloss over this contentious issue, both in their supposedly exhaustive Vietnam War documentary series and in subsequent interviews about the horrors of Vietnam. Facts About Herbicides. It is unlikely that the U.S. will admit liability for the horrors Agent Orange unleashed in Vietnam. Since 1945, the small Japanese island of Okinawa has been unwilling host to a massive U.S. military presence and a storehouse for a witches brew of dangerous munitions and chemicals, including nerve gas, mustard gas, and nuclear missiles. The operation lasted with incredible intensity for 9 consecutive years from 1962 to 1971. Agent Orange is a herbicide, classified as a defoliant, that was used most notably by the U.S. military during the Vietnam War. Find more hotels to stay in Vietnam below: Ho Chi Minh Private Tours:Saigon Shore ExcursionsMotorbike City ToursSaigon Food Tours, i Tour Vietnam - Private Tours Ltd. Outside Vietnam +84 986188801Inside Vietnam 0986188801 (English)info@itourvn.com. This was used extensively in Vietnam and in the Gulf and also to clean up the Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska. For all of us independent news organizations, its no exception. The most recent report, Update 11 (2018), presents the committee's analysis of peer-reviewed, scientific reports published between September 30, 2014, and December 31, 2017. Nowadays, the dioxin has remain in Vietnams ecosystem, in the soil and in the food chain. He concluded that the agent orange was not considered a poison under international law. In the end, the military campaign was called Operation Ranch Hand, but it originally went by a more appropriately hellish appellation: Operation Hades. But if you see something that doesn't look right, click here to contact us! Some of these vulnerable areas also happen to be very poor and, these days, home to a large number of Agent Orange victims. Sept. 1, 2014 - PRLog -- When the United States began using Chemical Warfare in Vietnam, its stated goals were to defoliate jungle coverage to see the enemy and limit the enemy's food supply. The first test spraying occurred August 10, 1961. By 1971, around 12% of its total area suffered from Rainbow Herbicides spraying; millions of hectares of forests (especially mangrove forests) and agricultural land were annihilated due to one-off or repetitive spray missions. The U.S. had a rainbow of chemicals at their disposal. Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous or other Gases, and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare or Geneva Protocol[click to view], Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 (first formal statements of the laws of war and war crimes in the body of secular international law), Peter Sills (2014) Toxic War: The Story of Agent Orange, David Zierler (2011) The Invention of Ecocide: Agent Orange, Vietnam, and the Scientists Who Changed the Way We Think About the Environment, Vietnamese Victims of Agent Orange and U.S.-Vietnam Relations[click to view], Vietnams horrific legacy: The children of Agent Orange[click to view], What is Agent Orange? Among the Vietnamese, exposure to Agent Orange is considered to be the cause of an abnormally high incidence of miscarriages, skin diseases, cancers, birth defects, and congenital malformations (often extreme and grotesque) dating from the 1970s. Because the effects of the chemical are passed from one generation to the next, Agent Orange is now debilitating its third and fourth generation. Due to this, climatic conditions in lower levels got changed dramatically with decreased moisture levels and increased light intensity, causing massive killing of plants and animals. The herbicide and defoliant exposed Viet Cong and North Vietnamese troops who previously sheltered under the . This article by Jason von Meding first appeared in 2019 in The Conversation via Creative Commons License. Considering how toxic dioxin is, it is truly shocking that after extremely minimal experimentation, Agent Orange and other herbicides were shipped to Vietnam in 1961 to aid in anti guerilla efforts. forests") and crop-growing regions of South Vietnam.1 Agent Or-ange was shipped to Vietnam in 55-gallon drums circled by a stripe of orange paint for easy sorting from other herbicides Agents White, Blue, Purple, and so on. Third, refining policies for dioxin victims, promoting relief efforts and ensuring better living conditions for them. The name comes from the orange-labeled containers the herbicide was shipped in. Let a viet name take care of their own. Copyright 2023 Center for the National Interest All Rights Reserved, exhaustive Vietnam War documentary series, sometimes showered in the empty 55-gallon drums, protect shorelines from typhoons and tsunamis, informed the U.S. military that Agent Orange was toxic, alleging that the use of chemical weapons constituted a war crime. These include Agent White, Agent Blue, Agent Pink, and Agent Green, among others. Agent Orange is a mixture of two active chemicals. This, in turn, has caused erosion, compromising forests in 28 river basins. Moreabout usor visit home page, Check out the necessary information for traveling to Vietnam, Airport Arrival Tips at Tan Son Nhat International Airport (Ho Chi Minh), Airport Arrival Tips at Noi Bai International Airport (Hanoi). Dioxins enter the bloodstream after being eaten or touched, build up in the food chain and can cause reproductive problems, cancer, hormonal interference, immune system damage, and developmental issues. The Rainbow Herbicides, as they were known, were only used as weapons in the war for a little over a decade, but their consequences can still be felt today. 2023 A&E Television Networks, LLC. Vietnams natural defenses were also debilitated. On a positive note, the Vietnamese government and both local and international organizations are making strides toward restoring this critical landscape. When you subscribe to the blog, we will send you an e-mail when there are new updates on the site so you wouldn't miss them. Because the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) was responsible for handling, transport, and storage of Agent Orange from the time it was delivered to Vietnam until loading onto Operation Ranch Hand aircraft, Agent Orange exposures of Allied troops during these procedures may have been negligible. The Aspen Istitute[click to view], Vietnam Association of Victims of Agent Orange/Dioxin (VAVA)[click to view], The Struggle Continues: Seeking Compensation for Vietnamese Agent Orange Victims, 52 years on[click to view], Agent of suffering, The Guardian. For more information, and to find out how to change the configuration of cookies, please read our, Utilizamos cookies para realizar el anlisis de la navegacin de los usuarios y mejorar nuestros servicios. Chapter 1 discusses the researcher's relationship with the topic and outlines the research procedures. During Operation Ranch Hand, the U.S. and South Vietnamese governments spent considerable time and effort making the claim that tactical herbicides were safe for humans and the environment. There is increasing evidence to suggest that ordinary Okinawans, including the 50,000 employed by the U.S. military during the Vietnam War, were also affected. Thanks to the associations proactivity, countless dioxin victims in Vietnam have received precious gifts that go beyond material values. People who come into contact with Agent Orange, depending on the length, intensity, and timing of their exposure, may suffer from skin diseases or congenital deformations. Stay updated with the latest news of the COVID-19 situation in Vietnam and information for traveling to Vietnam. Chapter 5 discusses how Agent Orange harms human reproductive functions, and the psychological transformation and social breakthrough that occurred as fathers took responsibility for the disabilities of their children. -Up to now, babies in Vietnam are still being born with birth defects. But then the children were born. In an attempt to starve out Communist insurgents, British troops sprayed the lush forests with a substance similar to what became Agent Orange. Despite the difficulty of establishing conclusive proof that their claims were valid, in 1979 U.S. veterans brought a class-action lawsuit against seven herbicide makers that produced Agent Orange for the U.S. military. . In November 1961, with the authorization of President Kennedy, the U.S. Air Force officially launched Operation Ranch Hand, the codename for its aggressive defoliation program in the Vietnam War. The wry sarcasm of the phrase sums up the irony of the mission. US plane spraying Vietnam landscape with tainted herbicide/defoliant Agent Orange during the war. The largest organization for dioxin victims in Vietnam is theVietnam Association for Victims of Agent Orange/Dioxin (VAVA). Evidence pointed to secret sorties flown by Air America pilots. They were also effective. In addition to being a highly effective at killing plants, it has turned out to have a number of alarming health effects that have made it into a very controversial subject. Famine, malnourishment and starvation set in. Its major manufacturers, including Dow Chemical and Monsanto, have . Promising projects are underway, modeling on four major targets penned by the Vietnamese government. As a result, nobody is officially accountable for the suffering of Vietnamese victims of Agent Orange. Using a variety of defoliants, the U.S. military also intentionally targeted cultivated land, destroying crops and disrupting rice production and distribution by the largely communist National Liberation Front, a party devoted to reunification of North and South Vietnam. It is a mixture of two common herbicides (2,4-D and 2,4,5-T ) that were used separately in the United States since the late 1940s. Agent Orange is one of the six types of Rainbow Herbicides, a group of chemicals meant to kills plants, trees, and crops. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. Percutaneous absorption of 2-butoxyethanol vapour in human subjects. The case was brought by. See Coronavirus Updates for information on campus protocols. Moreover, TCDD in natural environments can last for many years. As one of a group of chemicals referred to as the rainbow herbicides, Agent Orange served as the most well-known defoliant used in the Vietnam War. Long-Term Fate of Agent Orange and Dioxin TCDD Contaminated Soils and Sediments in Vietnam Hotspots. A series of photographs was also uncovered, apparently showing the 25,000 barrels in storage on Okinawas Camp Kinser, near the prefectural capital of Naha. More than 10 years of U.S. chemical warfare in Vietnam exposed an estimated 2.1 to 4.8 million Vietnamese people to Agent Orange. The natural habitat of such rare species as tigers, elephants, bears and leopards were distorted, in many cases beyond repair. The VA concept of a dried residue that is biologically unavailable is not consistent with widely accepted theories of the behavior of surface residues. Make a one-time contribution to Alternet All Access, Every reader contribution, no matter the amount, makes a difference in allowing our newsroom to bring you the stories that matter, at a time when being informed is more important than ever. American University in Vietnam students visited DAVA, the Da Nang Association for Victims of Agent Orange/Dioxin. Juridical relevant texts related to the conflict (laws, legislations, EIAs, etc), References to published books, academic articles, movies or published documentaries, Related media links to videos, campaigns, social network. Santa Barbara, CA 93108, Community, Liberation, Indigenous, and Eco-Psychologies (M.A./Ph.D. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors. The. The dangerous quantity of residual dioxin in the earth thwarts the normal growth of crops and trees, while continuing to poison the food chain. Agent Orange could have been brought about on or off the USS Oriskany by either the proximity of the ship to Vietnam aboard its presence while the Veteran was aboard there, or by a possible exposure occurring during contact between the veteran and aircraft that passed over Vietnam during his time on board. During the 10-year campaign, U.S. aircraft targeted 4.5 million acres across 30 different provinces in the area below the 17th parallel and in the Mekong Delta, destroying inland hardwood forests and coastal mangrove swamps as they sprayed. On a positive note, the Vietnamese government and both local and international organizations are making strides toward restoring this critical landscape. The Geneva Protocol, developed after World. Brother Nam assured readers that herbicides were safe. The Rainbow Herbicides left a lethal legacy. Da Nang International Airport was a former U.S. base that stored and distributed American-made herbicides during the Vietnam War. During the past year and a half, dozens of U.S. veterans have spoken out about the use, storage, and disposal of Agent Orange on Okinawa during the 1960s and 70s. Agent Orange was a defoliant sprayed by the U.S. during the Vietnam War to clear dense vegetation and reveal enemy troops. Dioxin stays in the soil and in the sediment at the . Some of these vulnerable areas also happen to be very poor and, these days, home to a large number of Agent Orange victims. Catholic Religious group, HIGH (widespread, mass mobilization, violence, arrests, etc), In REACTION to the implementation (during construction or operation), Development of a network/collective action. American soldiers were told the chemicals were safe. However, early plans to use chemicals to, for example, starve the Japanese by ruining their rice crops, faltered. These herbicides were used to destroy food sources and eliminate foliage that concealed enemy troop movements. By spraying Agent Orange, he thought he was helping the United States military bust through Vietnam's impenetrable jungles on the way to victory. On leaf and soil surfaces it will last 13 years, depending on conditions. In human bodies the half-life is 1120 years. First, building effective systems to monitor dioxin contamination, preventing the birth of new pollutants. : The use of Agent Orange ended in the 1970s, it is no longer in use. Two heroic women fight to hold the manufacturers accountable. The suit was settled out of court in 1984 with the establishment of a $180 million fund to compensate some 250,000 claimants and their families. And in Vietnam, people who lived beneath the rain of rainbow chemicals have experienced generations of health effects. Such color-coding was meant as a convenient substitution for the more complicated chemical names and stemmed from the color of the 55-gallon drums that contained the respective herbicides. Herbicidal warfare had been a military dream since the 1940s, when Allied researchers began to brainstorm ways to use chemicals to scorch the earth. A young boy, who was born without eyes, at the Tu Du Hospital in Ho Chi Minh City, home to dozens of children who suffer from severe mental and physical disabilities as results from their parents coming in contact with Agent Orange. The sole target of Operation Ranch Hand was Vietnamese guerrillas (troops that hide well to make sudden attacks on the enemy). Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. Of this figure, nearly 11.45 million (equivalent to over 208,000 drums) was Agent Orange, discharged mostly between 1965 and 1970. John Olin, the Florida-based researcher who discovered the 2003 army report, says he will keep investigating the militarys use of Agent Orange on Okinawa. The US has agreed for the first time to help towards cleaning up a site in Vietnam which stored Agent Orange and other chemicals during the Vietnam war. Following the discovery of the army report, 10 former service members wrote a letter to the U.S. Senate Committee on Veterans Affairs demanding a full investigation into the militarys use of Agent Orange on Okinawa. The Effect on Soldiers. Agent Orange was used along with several other herbicides, code-named Agents White, Purple, Blue, Pink, and Green. The most heavily exposed locations among them Dong Nai, Binh Phuoc, Thua Thien Hue and Kontum were sprayed multiple times. Most concerning was the extremely high levels of dioxin in the soil, especially at the main bases like Bien Hoa, Da Nang, and Phu Cat. Agent Orange: Directed by Alan Adelson, Kate Taverna. Agent Orange was banned in 1971. TCDD is a byproduct of herbicide production and is toxic even in small amounts. Between the B-52 strikes and the Agent Orange, that lovely lush jungle around Khe Sanh was turned brown., Year-old conjoined twins being cared for at Hanois Viet-Duc hospital, a center for treating deformed children and others who may have been affected by exposure to the defoliant Agent Orange. As a result, flooding has gotten worse in numerous watershed areas. Now, for the first time, a recently uncovered U.S. army report reveals that, during the Vietnam War, the United States stockpiled 25,000 barrels of Agent Orange on the Pacific island. It's an uphill battle, said Maynard Kaderlik, the Minnesota-based chair of the Vietnam Veterans of America's Agent Orange and Dioxin Committee. The chemicals, in fact, have no color as their names might have mistakenly suggested. The Agent Orange catastrophe did not end with the Vietnam War. It is estimated that, in total, tens of thousands of people have suffered serious birth defects spina bifida, cerebral palsy, physical and intellectual disabilities and missing or deformed limbs. In recent years, it has become clear that not only did the government know about the herbicides awful effects, but that they relied on chemical companies for technical guidance instead of their own staff. Their names matched the color of the stripe on the 55 gallon barrels it was shipped in. Now it would appear those denials are losing currency.